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Reflections on the manifestation of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in girls from young adults with lived experiences : a qualitative study
Williams, Tamara Barclay, Isabella Bevan-Jones, Rhys Livingston, Lucy A Agha, Sharifah Ford, Tamsin John, Ann Sayal, Kapil Thapar, Anita Martin, Joanna
Williams, Tamara
Barclay, Isabella
Bevan-Jones, Rhys
Livingston, Lucy A
Agha, Sharifah
Ford, Tamsin
John, Ann
Sayal, Kapil
Thapar, Anita
Martin, Joanna
Abstract
BACKGROUND: Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is more commonly missed or diagnosed later in females than in males. One explanation is that diagnostic criteria have been informed by research primarily based on male samples and may not adequately capture the female presentation of ADHD. AIMS: This study used a qualitative approach to better understand female ADHD in childhood, from the perspective of young women and non-binary adults with ADHD. METHOD: Twelve young adults (10 women and 2 non-binary individuals assigned female at birth, aged 18-25 years) with ADHD were interviewed to describe their lived experiences of ADHD throughout childhood. Interviews were transcribed verbatim and qualitatively analysed using the framework method, a codebook approach to thematic analysis. RESULTS: Participants reported experiencing a range of ADHD symptoms, some of which are not included in current diagnostic criteria. Four core themes were identified: (a) socially oriented and internalised symptoms, (b) social impacts, (c) masking and compensation and (d) the importance of context. Theme one describes how girls with ADHD may experience symptoms as more socially oriented (e.g. losing track of thoughts in a conversation), non-disruptive (e.g. doodling) and internalised (e.g. feeling frustrated) than those described by current diagnostic criteria. Theme two highlights the importance of social impacts of ADHD on friends, home and school. Theme three describes the desire to 'fit in' socially, behaviours and strategies used to mask symptoms and associated unfavourable consequences. Theme four highlights variability in symptoms across different environmental contexts. CONCLUSIONS: This study suggests that the presentation of ADHD symptoms in girls may be socially oriented, internalised and especially influenced by the social context. Also, female ADHD symptoms may be less visible due to scaffolding, masking and context. Future research should consider whether current ADHD diagnostic criteria require adjustment, to aid earlier recognition and diagnosis of ADHD in children and young people, especially in females.
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Date
2025
Type
Article
Subject
Attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity, Lived experience
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Citation
Williams, T., Barclay, I., Bevan-Jones, R., Livingston, L. A., Agha, S., Ford, T., John, A., Sayal, K., Thapar, A. & Martin, J. (2025). Reflections on the manifestation of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in girls from young adults with lived experiences : a qualitative study. British Journal of Psychiatry, pp.1-8.
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Cambridge University Press
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© The Author(s), 2025. Published by Cambridge University Press
on behalf of Royal College of Psychiatrists. This is an Open
Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution licence (https://creativecommons.org/lice
nses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted re-use, distribution
and reproduction, provided the original article is properly cited.
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